Category: Politics

  • Bitcoin at 10 – Money in a World of Tokens

    Bitcoin at 10 – Money in a World of Tokens

    On this very day ten years ago – January 3, 2009 –, the Bitcoin network went live. Bitcoin’s first block, the Genesis Block, includes a short message as a reminder that the world was, at the time, finding itself in the midst of the biggest financial crisis since the 1920s. The message refers to the headline of the British newspaper “The Times” of that day:

    “Chancellor on Brink of Second Bailout for Banks”

    And, in fact, at about the same time as the Bitcoin whitepaper was published (October 31, 2008), the failure of Lehman Brothers as an issuer and underwriter of mortgage-backed securities initiated the largest insolvency proceedings in U.S. history and, subsequently, led to a major economic and political crisis of global dimensions.

    Bitcoin’s inventor Satoshi Nakamoto is said to have picked that newspaper headline not only to create an immutable time reference for the genesis of the network but also to make a political statement (his own writings support the claim). As announced a few months prior to this event in the whitepaper, Bitcoin was intended to become a peer-to-peer electronic cash system, thereby eliminating the intermediating middleman – probably the prime source of fragility in today’s financial industry.

    Cryptocurrency as money

    Now, given the stated goal, the question is essentially whether Bitcoin and its numerous variants have since become what is commonly considered to be sound money. A recent analysis of Bitcoin as money can be found at Alt-M. In his short essay, the economist Larry White summarizes the state of the cryptocurrency as follows:

    “Bitcoin should not be regarded as the last word in private money, but should be appreciated as a remarkable technological breakthrough. […] The inbuilt volatility of its purchasing power makes it unlikely to displace the incumbent fiat currencies barring an inflationary explosion.”

    It is perhaps unsurprisingly, then, that people have begun to look into building stable coins based on blockchain technology. While there are already various – technically and legally – different types of stable coins, they often make a reference to a fiat currency, such as the US dollar or Swiss franc. In other words, they replicate their strengths and weaknesses: While most fiat currencies are exceptionally well-suited as transaction media, many of them are highly ineffective when it comes to storing value over time.

    This is a real issue for poor people with very few or no options to diversify their savings.

    Money and politics

    The control over money is a powerful tool. That is why money and politics tend to go hand in hand. For slightly more than one hundred years, money has come into existence as fiat, i.e., unbacked currency created by an authority – typically the central bank of a country. Fiat currency might be managed diligently in the interest of the “greater good” (whatever that is supposed to mean). However, the past has been anything but a good track record of sound monetary policy. Therefore, it must have been inevitable for F.A. Hayek to refer to the history of money as an “all too monotonous and depressing […] story [of inflation]” (1976, p. 33-34).

    Tokenization may be the answer!

    Were it not for the efficiency of money as a medium of exchange, our economic system would revert to a simple barter and gift economy. However, modern monetary systems have become purely instrumental, entirely reduced to a means of creating money out of thin air. We can then ask ourselves: Why not rather link money to economic output than political influence, to real wealth instead of decreed purchasing power?

    The implementation of this idea may be facilitated by tokenization:

    Bitcoin and Ethereum involve native tokens. Such tokens are digital assets without any connection to real-world assets. Now, by means of tokenization, you can basically link tokens tradeable on the blockchain to any asset, in particular shares and bonds; such tokens that leverage the Bitcoin or Ethereum network as underlying platform are called asset-backed tokens.

    Tradeability, however, is only the first step. The true nature of a good being money, as the economist Fritz Machlup put it, lies in its moneyness. “Moneyness” can best be defined as something, inter alia, durableportable, fungible, and scarce. Furthermore, where a market exists, liquid trading of such good becomes viable.

    Also, moneyness is a spectrum – some goods are better suited than others to be widely used as a medium of exchange. In other words, while some goods exhibit high degrees of moneyness – historically, this has been the case for precious metals such as gold and silver –, others only have modest levels of moneyness – services and bicycles are in a rather difficult position to gain widespread acceptance as a means of payment.

    Tokenization of wealth

    “But why use money to make transactions when computers offer the possibility to exchange goods and services for wealth?”

    In his book “The End of Alchemy”, published in 2016, Mervyn King describes the transformation of the world of finance, the banking system, and money. The former Governor of the Bank of England, including during the period of the financial crisis, seems to envisage wealth being used as some sort of transaction medium.

    What did he possibly mean by that?

    As Swiss companies have recently begun to tokenize their stocks and bonds using blockchain technology, we will likely see in the future the emergence of freely tradeable and thus highly liquid stocks and bonds outside of traditional organized markets, such as a regulated stock exchange. To be fair: in most instances, such private offerings will unlikely succeed as a new means of payment, and, in many cases, this is not their intention anyway.

    However, tokenization as a means to facilitate trade of shares and bonds on the blockchain, allows for a very simple solution that may eventually lead to a private means of payment.

    How?

    A company – let us call it “Private Money Ltd.” – that seeks to reflect the value creation in a given economy (e.g., the Swiss Gross Domestic Product, GDP) can purchase assets of the said economy, such as stocks, commodities, real estate, and company loans. By selecting good “proxy assets” for the underlying economy, Private Money Ltd. may effectively emulate the total economic output produced within a given country’s borders on its balance sheet. Now, holding shares of Private Money Ltd. would allow people to participate in the total wealth creation of a country as if they were purchasing each asset of the company’s balance sheet directly.

    The company’s value would ideally grow or contract at the same speed as the economy’s GDP, thereby more or less keeping share price and production growth (or contraction) in balance. Keeping money stock and production growth (or slow-down) in balance is essentially the policy objective of central banks. However, a private company tokenizing its shares would be less prone to special public and private interests, yet still be accountable to their shareholders.

    As mentioned above, since such shares would be tokenized, they would become easily accessible to everyone interested. The use of blockchain technology would allow for peer-to-peer exchange (P2P) as if the shares were regular banknotes and coins issued by a nation state. Given sufficient demand for the shares of Private Money Ltd., people could eventually start using them as a private means of exchange.

    New forms of money on the horizon

    Such a development may seem contrary to Bitcoin’s claim to be a P2P electronic cash system. Indeed, tokenization necessitates a certain degree of centralization. However, cryptocurrencies have, compared to a tokenized balance sheet, one great disadvantage, as they are not backed by anything other than computing power and people’s confidence in its hard coded safeguards. In other words, people typically have only poor expectations as regards Bitcoin’s “fair value”, resulting in a highly volatile price and purchasing power, respectively. A well-diversified asset portfolio is likely superior in terms of stabilizing market expectations in the long run.

    Having said that, Bitcoin eventually evolving into money and asset-backed tokens being used as such need not be mutually exclusive.

    No tokenization without Bitcoin!

    In any case, there would be no tokenization without Bitcoin and Ethereum, no asset-backed tokens without their native predecessors. It is only thanks to Bitcoin’s ingenious monetary network design and Ethereum’s progress in developing sophisticated smart contract-systems that we are now able to talk about the likely emergence of new forms of money.

    This is not the only reason (see, e.g., social scalability; censorship resistance and free speech; access to finance for the unbanked), but it is an important one for us to celebrate Bitcoin’s “genesis block” today.

     

    Photo source: https://www.reddit.com/r/Bitcoin/comments/7ns2u7/nakamoto_remembers_the_times_03jan2009_chancellor/

  • Switzerland’s Financial Market (De-)Regulation in the Age of FinTech

    Switzerland’s Financial Market (De-)Regulation in the Age of FinTech

    Financial market regulation has become a hot topic: With the advent of “FinTech”, startups building their novel business models flock to jurisdictions that offer them the best regulatory environment. Switzerland’s reputation as a crypto-friendly jurisdiction has awarded the country the title „Crypto Nation“[1]. On the other hand, while not being as welcoming to crypto businesses as the alpine country, the U.S. is still the leading place where entrepreneurial minds find the largest pool of venture capital for the pursuit of their innovative ideas. Other jurisdictions, then again, such as the European Union, have, because of their sluggish political situation, remained in regulatory sleep mode when it comes to FinTech.

    The End of “Swiss Banking”

    For the last ten years, Switzerland’s banking industry has found itself in the most profound transformations – probably in all its history. The change started with the global financial institution UBS nearly closing its doors at Zurich’s luxurious Bahnhofstrasse due to suffering massive depreciations on their subprime assets in 2007-08; the bank’s failure to anticipate the subprime mortgage price decline resulted in an unprecedented bailout amounting to approximately 66 billion Swiss francs. After that, in 2013, the oldest Swiss bank, dating back to 1741, Bank Wegelin & Co., was forced to discontinue its activities as a result of criminal tax proceedings in the U.S. In addition to individual bank insolvencies and the harsh tax dispute between the U.S. Department of Justice and the Swiss government, the overall conditions for providing banking services were reshaped at fundamental levels: The G20 leaders, and with them FATF and OECD, have pressured the Swiss government to implement the automatic exchange of information between tax authorities by putting the alpine country on various “black lists”, thus effectively bringing an end to the era of bank secrecy (at least for foreigners). They were taking advantage of the momentum brought about by the Financial Crisis:

    “Major failures of regulation and supervision, plus reckless and irresponsible risk taking by banks and other financial institutions, created dangerous financial fragilities that contributed significantly to the current crisis. […] Our commitment to fight non-cooperative jurisdictions […] has produced impressive results. We are committed to maintain the momentum in dealing with tax havens, money laundering, proceeds of corruption, terrorist financing, and prudential standards.”[2]

    As a result, Switzerland is, for the first time in history, going to exchange information on around two million financial accounts with more than 90 countries this year. No wonder that the global Financial Crisis of 2007-08 has been declared the unofficial end to what had proudly been referred to as “Swiss Banking” for more than 80 years. Today, while still being the two leading places for wealth management services,[3] Zurich and Geneva have lost part of their previous appeal as financial centers. It would, for this reason, not be surprising if the local banking industry has sought to reinvent itself. This has not really been the case though. In fact, until this very day, the big players were hardly keen to innovate and take the future into their own hands. Three crucial reasons for this can be found within the banks themselves: Their IT systems were typically structured at the end of the last century (where their systems are more recent, banks invested dozens of millions just to keep up with the latest mainstream technology). The second reason is concerned with “legacy bank customers”, such as long-standing U.S. and French clients owing taxes to the Internal Revenue Service and the Ministre des Finances et des Comptes publics, corrupt politicians robbing their South American citizens, or Russian oligarchs laundering dirty money through Western European banks. Finally, the regulatory burden has continually been raised in the aftermath of the Financial Crisis. This inexorable rise has most clearly been the case with regard to anti-money laundering regulations. In other words, exploring new shores and thereby taking unpredictable risks are not among the viable options of a typical Swiss bank any longer.

    Digitalizing Finance

    The neologism “FinTech” has become a buzzword, only being surpassed by the excessive use of the terms “blockchain” and “crypto-something”. Apparently, FinTech is a much broader concept than the other two comprising areas as diverse as, for example, risk management in banks, crowd-based platforms for raising capital, portfolio strategy tools built on machine learning algorithms as well as cryptocurrency trading engines. In fact, FinTech is yet another term to describe what has been happening for years: The banking industry, with its anachronistic paperwork and computer mainframes from the 70s, has long been overdue for a makeover. While incremental improvements have certainly been undertaken continuously, incompatible legacy systems have become so onerous for banks that today’s most delicate bank projects are the ones involving the restructuring of existing IT systems.

    By contrast, technological progress outside of the banking system has been taking place without showing any signs of a slowdown. Almost ten years ago, for example, Bitcoin’s genesis block was “mined”. The Bitcoin cryptocurrency network has been up and running since then amounting to a market capitalization of more than 300 billion U.S. dollar at the peak in December 2017. While Bitcoin’s success may have been unexpected for most of us, its fundamentals are fairly simple: The cryptocurrency wisely combines the long tested technology of cryptographic proofs with the concept of a decentralized computer network. Today, despite its scalability problems, Bitcoin and other cryptocurrencies have shown the world that cross-border payment transactions can happen as easily as sending an email, and that secure asset custody no longer depends on traditional institutions but can be done in the palm of your hand. Undoubtedly, the shift from an Internet as a “mere” channel of communication to an Internet of value has been initiated with the emergence of blockchain technology.

    The 2014-Bitcoin Report

    The development of blockchain businesses in Switzerland really gained traction in June 2014 when the people around the mastermind Vitalik Buterin were looking for a place to set up a foundation to further the development of their cryptocurrency and smart contract protocol called “Ethereum”. They needed to rely on a legal structure to carry out what later became a rather dubious way of raising capital, the so-called “initial coin offering” (ICO). They found a small town in Central Switzerland, Zug, which is now the domicile for more than 2’000 FinTech companies and thus known as “Crypto Valley”. Since then, this new part of the Swiss financial industry has grown enormously, attracting more and more entrepreneurs, venture capitalists, IT pundits, attorneys, tax professionals, accountants, and, of course, the regulator.

    The Swiss regulator first got interested in the topic as members of the parliament asked the Federal Council to publish a report on the legal implications of being involved with Bitcoin. The Federal Council’s report of 2014[4] clarified that cryptocurrency can be embedded into the existing legal framework. The report also classified Bitcoins as a lawful asset, stating that there are no provisions prohibiting private parties to voluntarily use the cryptocurrency.

    The 2014-report being a big relief for the still emergent crypto-industry allowed it to grow further (and probably also faster). What followed was an extensive public debate of the question whether coin holders may have property rights with regard to digital assets since Swiss property law technically restricts ownership to physical objects. In fact, blockchains perfectly replicate the economic theory of property rights: Blockchain-based assets are excludable and rival; public-key cryptography allows for the clear allocation of digital assets to their “owners”. In other words, unlike data stored in one of Facebook’s data centers, the data underlying a Bitcoin transaction cannot be copied and transferred to third parties while the original coin holder retains possession of the data at the same time. Another hot topic under Swiss law is concerned with the transfer of tokenized assets, such as a stock or a legal claim. The main problem here arises from the statutory requirement that the transfer of legal rights (“assignment”) must be carried out in written form. It is highly likely that the legislator will amend certain parts of the Code of Obligations to take into account new ways of transferring ownership of digital assets, such as signing a transaction with the private key that is stored in a smartphone “wallet”.

    The first wave of FinTech “deregulation” took place in 2017, particularly covering crowdfunding platforms that bring together borrowers and lenders. In addition, the Swiss regulator introduced a sandbox regime for companies allowing them to accept public deposits as high as 1 million Swiss francs without any regulation or supervision. A new banking license “light” currently under way aims to reduce the amount of banking regulation for FinTech companies seeking to obtain a regular banking license. These companies will be permitted to accept public deposits of up to 100 million Swiss francs, essentially enabling them to offer the whole range of crypto-services, such as storage, brokerage, and trading.

    The Rise of the “Crypto Valley”

    The good thing about Switzerland’s regulatory environment is that it is fairly decentralized. While this is not true for financial market regulation and supervision, which is spearheaded by the Swiss Financial Market Supervisory Authority (FINMA), it accurately describes fiscal and tax matters. In short, Swiss cantons as well as municipalities compete against each other for individuals and corporations. The Canton of Zug is the perfect embodiment of this crucial policy: It has exercised a pull on international companies looking for competitive tax environments for more than two decades. In other words, Switzerland’s political system of federalism has perfectly suited the underlying paradigm of blockchain technology.

    Since the Canton of Zug was the first choice for most foreign blockchain companies moving to Switzerland, the City of Zug started accepting Bitcoin and other cryptocurrencies as a payment for their government services. This obviously made the headline of major publications around the world. It was then simple but smart marketing to rebrand the area, which had previously been known for its commodity industry, as “Crypto Valley”.

    While in particular the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission has put most blockchain-issued tokens into the “securities” bucket,[5] thus effectively bringing them under its jurisdiction, FINMA advocated a more industry-friendly approach by dividing crypto-assets into three groups in February 2018:[6]

    Payment tokens, such as Bitcoin or Ethereum, do not convey any legal rights to their holders. They are solely used as a means of exchange. Such tokens are typically not subject to prudential supervision but still fall within the scope of anti-money laundering regulation.

    Utility tokens are basically contractual rights to certain services, similar to digital keys enabling access to a specific piece of software.

    Asset tokens comprise all tokens representing rights that have traditionally been traded on financial markets, such as stocks, bonds, and derivative contracts, as well as any other claim to “something” that does not qualify as a utility token.

    While FINMA’s division intro three token classes allows for more pronounced regulation and supervision, it is also more complicated than the U.S. approach. Anyhow, the current main problem of blockchain companies is not how FINMA but banks treat them when applying for a corporate bank account. However, in September 2018, the Swiss Bankers Association standardized the opening process by publishing non-binding guidelines for their member banks.[7]

    The Emergence of Swiss Banking 2.0?

    Being fully aware that Switzerland lost its fight for the protection of financial privacy, it is the Swiss legislator’s stated goal to encourage the development of blockchain technology, in particular with regard to asset tokenization. In the meantime, former high-level bankers have joined start-ups that seek to obtain an approval from FINMA as “crypto-banks”. Unlike the Principality of Liechtenstein with its separate “Blockchain Act”, Switzerland will not go for a completely new set of regulations but rather “deregulate” existing laws by taking into account the ways of doing business in the age of FinTech.

    A slightly adapted version of this article has appeared in the Cayman Financial Review.

    [1] See Financial Times, Switzerland embraces cryptocurrency culture, January 25, 2018, https://www.ft.com/content/c2098ef6-ff84-11e7-9650-9c0ad2d7c5b5.

    [2] G20 Leaders Statement: The Pittsburgh Summit, September 24-25, 2009, notes 10 and 15, http://www.g20.utoronto.ca/2009/2009communique0925.html.

    [3] See Deloitte, The Deloitte International Wealth Management Centre Ranking 2018, https://www2.deloitte.com/ch/en/pages/financial-services/articles/the-deloitte-wealth-management-centre-ranking-2018.html.

    [4] The Federal Council’s report (only in German) can be downloaded here: https://www.news.admin.ch/NSBSubscriber/message/attachments/35361.pdf.

    [5] See U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, Public Statement on Potentially Unlawful Online Platforms for Trading Digital Assets, March 7, 2018, https://www.sec.gov/news/public-statement/enforcement-tm-statement-potentially-unlawful-online-platforms-trading.

    [6] See Swiss Financial Market Supervisory Authority, FINMA publishes ICO guidelines, February 16, 2018, https://www.finma.ch/en/news/2018/02/20180216-mm-ico-wegleitung/.

    [7] See Swiss Bankers Association, Opening corporate accounts for blockchain companies – Swiss Bankers Association publishes guidelines for its members, September 21, 2018, https://www.swissbanking.org/en/media/positions-and-press-releases/opening-corporate-accounts-for-blockchain-companies-guidelines.

  • Die Meinungsäusserung als Teil der menschlichen Identität

    Die Meinungsäusserung als Teil der menschlichen Identität

    Vorbemerkungen zur Menschenwürde und zur individuellen Identität

    Die Menschenwürde ist ein schwer greifbares Konzept, dessen praktischer Wert unter Rechtsphilosophen zudem umstritten ist. Aus ethischer Perspektive wurde und wird die Menschenwürde traditionell entweder theologisch (Mensch als Abbild Gottes), naturrechtlich (aufgrund der Vernunft) oder formalistisch bzw. deontologisch (insbesondere mit Immanuel Kants These, dass der Mensch immer Selbstzweck und niemals bloss Mittel sein dürfe) hergeleitet. Demgegenüber beziehen utilitaristische und kontraktualistische Theorien das Prinzip der Menschenwürde regelmässig nur mittelbar ein.

    In praktisch allen Fällen beschreibt die Menschenwürde einen existenziellen Wert, welcher jeder und jedem aufgrund ihrer resp. seiner evolutionsbiologischen Gleichheit zukommt, ohne dies weiter begründen zu müssen. Insofern ist die Menschenwürde die positive Anerkennung des Menschseins an sich und der damit verbundenen Kategorien des Denkens, Sprechens und Handelns – gleichsam die Identität des Einzelnen.

    Im vorliegenden Beitrag möchte ich mit dem Konzept der Menschenwürde nicht die sehr umkämpften Debatten angehen, die sich mit dem Anfang und Ende des Lebens beschäftigen, oder damit, ob ein Leben „in Würde“ gewisser staatlicher Sozialleistungen bedarf.

    Meine These beschäftigt sich alleine mit der Meinungsäusserung als Teil der Menschenwürde und damit unserer individuellen Identität. Die Meinungsäusserung repräsentiert nach der vorliegend vertretenen Auffassung einen inhärent menschlichen Akt, den es als solchen kategorisch zu dulden gilt. Dafür greife ich argumentativ – ausgehend von einer diskursethischen Rechtfertigung der Meinungsäusserungsfreiheit – gleichermassen auf formalistische und utilitaristische Erwägungen zurück.

    „Speech“ als politischer Denk-Sprech-Akt

    Die Sprache ist das zentrale Werkzeug der menschlichen Kommunikation. Ihre Bedeutung für die Gestaltung des sozialen Kontexts, in dem man sich bewegt, ist immens: Durch den Sprechakt können wir unsere Mitmenschen loben, ermutigen und emotional unterstützen; gleichzeitig erlaubt uns das Sprechen, andere zu kritisieren, zu entmutigen oder psychisch unter Druck zu setzen.

    Diese Doppelnatur der Sprache für den sozialen Kontext ist bedeutsam; ihr kommt namentlich eine politische Dimension zu: Wo wir uns nicht im rein privaten Umfeld bewegen, können unsere Äusserungen auf Widerstand stossen. Unter Umständen werden unsere Aussagen als bedauerlich und kleingeistig wahrgenommen, ja möglicherweise wird man uns für den unüberlegten Inhalt kritisieren oder gar unsere Person als solche attackieren.

    Aussagen zeigen Wirkung, indem der Inhalt der Botschaft Rückschlüsse auf den Absender erlaubt. Der Empfänger wird darüber entscheiden, ob er weiterhin den sozialen Kontakt mit dem Absender pflegen will. Dies ist richtig, denn wir müssen Verantwortung für unsere Meinungsäusserungen übernehmen. Es soll weh tun, wenn man Dummheiten behauptet, ohne sachliche Argumente dafür vorbringen zu können. Soziale Ächtung war und ist eines der wirksamsten Instrumente überhaupt – psychologisch oft weit effektiver als Rechtsnormen –, das in solchen Fällen für gesellschaftliche Homöostase und damit sozialen Ausgleich sorgt.

    Ein wesentlicher Teil des Menschseins ist definiert durch die verbale (und natürlich auch nonverbale) Kommunikation des Einzelnen mit seiner Umwelt. Ferner macht Kommunikation erst Sinn in der Gruppe: So wie der Mensch Teil der Gemeinschaft ist (Aristoteles’ „zoon politikon“), ist der Sprechakt Ausdruck einer kollektiven Zugehörigkeit. Sprechen und Menschsein gehören darum ein und derselben sozio-kulturellen Ebene an.

    Ein wesentlicher Teil des Menschseins ist definiert durch die verbale Kommunikation des Einzelnen mit seiner Umwelt.

    Einen bestimmten Sprechakt zu verbieten, ist deshalb nicht nur ein leichter Eingriff, sondern einer, der unsere Menschenwürde und damit unsere individuelle Identität tangiert.[1] Diese Auffassung wird nicht nur in den Fällen manifest, in denen eine bestimmte Wortwahl verpönt ist („hate speech“), sondern vor allem unter jenen Umständen, in welchen darüber hinaus „politisch korrektes“ Sprechen gefordert wird („forced speech“). Das Problem liegt in diesem Fall noch tiefer, weil durch die bewusste Steuerung des Sprechaktes die Denkweise der betroffenen Menschen nachhaltig beeinflusst werden kann.

    Weil eben eine erzwungene Sprache auch unser Denken nachhaltig verändern kann, sind Denken und Sprechen deutlich enger beieinander, als man auf den ersten Blick zu meinen glaubt. In der Tat ist der Sprechende auch immer ein Denkender; selbst wenn man unbedarft spricht, ist damit ein affektiver (oft stereotyper) Denkprozess verbunden.

    “Freedom to think as you will and to speak as you think are means indispensable to the discovery and spread of political truth.”

    Dieser berühmte Satz stammt aus dem Urteil „Whitney versus California“ von 1927, in welchem Richter Brandeis die Einheit von Denken und Sprechen als ein und denselben politischen Akt betonte.

    Mills „harm principle“

    In seinem grossartigen Buch „On Liberty“ (1859) schränkte John Stuart Mill jegliche Freiheitsbeschränkungen des Einzelnen auf die Fälle ein, in welchen eine andere Person zu Schaden kommt. Bis heute sind der Umfang und die Bedeutung dieses als „harm principle“ bezeichneten Konzepts unter politischen Philosophen umstritten:

    “That principle is, that the sole end for which mankind are warranted, individually or collectively, in interfering with the liberty of action of any of their number, is self-protection. That the only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilised community, against his will, is to prevent harm to others.”

    Aus liberaler Sicht stellt sich die Frage, wo man – will man Mills „harm principle“ folgen – die Trennlinie zwischen erlaubter und verbotener Meinungsäusserung ziehen will. Diese Aufgabe gehört zu den schwierigsten in einer offenen und freien Gesellschaft, und sie ist meines Erachtens im Zweifelsfall zugunsten uneingeschränkter Meinungsäusserung auszulegen („in dubio pro libertate“).

    Denken, Sprechen und Handeln: ein einziges Spektrum?

    Denken, Sprechen und Handeln erscheinen prima facie als völlig voneinander losgelöste Prozesse. Wie wir oben gesehen haben, können wir jedoch an dieser Feststellung mit Blick auf die politische Dimension des Denk-Sprech-Aktes nicht festhalten.

    Demgegenüber sind Sprechen und Handeln kategorial unterschiedliche Dinge. Eine Person in ihrem religiösen Glauben oder in ihren ideologischen Überzeugungen zu verletzen – US-amerikanische Juristen nennen dies den „erkennbaren Schaden“, der in einer liberalen Gesellschaft hinzunehmen ist –, ist nicht dasselbe, wie wenn ich ihr zum Zeichen meines inhaltlichen Einwandes ins Gesicht schlage. Dort, wo physische Eingriffe eine mehrheitlich symbolische Note besitzen, wie das Anspucken oder der im arabischen Raum verbreitete Wurf eines Schuhs, findet eine komplexe Vermischung der beiden Kategorien statt.

    Ferner kann ein bestimmter Sprechakt durchaus die emotionale und psychologische Schmerzgrenze erreichen, die mit derjenigen physischer Eingriffe zumindest vergleichbar ist. Dies wird deutlich anhand der Propaganda der NSDAP, welche dem Zweck der sprachgesteuerten Erniedrigung von bestimmten Gruppenangehörigen, wie etwa Juden, politischen Opponenten, Homosexuellen oder Angehörigen von Fahrenden, diente. Dasselbe kann man über die verbale Machtdemonstration des Hutu-Regimes gegenüber der Tutsi-Minderheit in Ruanda sagen, welche 1994 im Genozid endete.

    Offensichtlich: Worte können subjektiv verletzend sein. Dies wird kaum einer bestreiten wollen, hat doch wohl schon jede und jeder diese Realität am eigenen Leib erfahren müssen. Dennoch möchte ich nicht die Auffassung vertreten, so wie es einige in Anlehnung an Ludwig Wittgenstein tun,[2] dass Worte und Handlungen je nach Kontext derselben Kategorie angehören können, dass also die Unterscheidung zwischen „free speech“ und „hate speech“ letztendlich subjektiv beliebig ist.

    Nur im Fall der eigentlichen Handlung wird die physische Integrität des betroffenen Individuums direkt verletzt; im Fall des herabwürdigenden Sprechens wird man meines Erachtens höchstens ausnahmsweise argumentieren dürfen, dass die Intensität des Sprechaktes diejenige der unmittelbaren physischen Misshandlung erreicht. Diese seltenen Fälle sind allerdings so systematisch in ihrer Natur, dass sie historisch wohl fast ausschliesslich durch totalitäre staatliche oder parastaatliche Institutionen ausgeübt worden sind.

    Die hier vertretene Position teilt demgegenüber dem Staat die Rolle des Zuschauers zu, was opportunistische und fremdinteressengeleitete Versuche zur Sprachsteuerung und Zensur erschwert.

    Von einer reaktionären „Flat earth“-Mentalität

    Eine offene Einstellung gegenüber Andersdenkenden und -sprechenden verkörpert Fortschrittsfreundlichkeit und Skepsis gegenüber „konservierten“ Machtstrukturen. Die Meinungsfreiheit – interpretiert im Sinne des „harm principle“ – ist, wenn auch nicht immer Rezept für den sozialen Frieden, doch ein solches des sozialen Fortschritts. Der Supreme Court-Richter William O. Douglas sprach darum von einem eigentlichen „market place of ideas“:

    “Like the publishers of newspapers, magazines, or books, this publisher bids for the minds of men in the market place of ideas.”

    Mills Standpunkt sollte ferner vor dem Hintergrund eines weiteren normativen Konzepts interpretiert werden: der ethischen Maxime einer grundsätzlich offenen Geisteshaltung. Es ist diese prinzipielle Toleranz, welche ihren Ursprung in der liberalen Aufklärung hat. Anders als die selektive, gefühlsbetonte und rein subjektive Toleranz, welche zwar in freundlichen Kleidern daherkommt – und zugegeben, an deren Eckpunkten ich mich aus praktischen Gründen im Alltag ebenfalls zu orientieren versuche –, die aber letztlich der freien Gesellschaft einen Bärendienst erweist, indem sie Andersdenkende und -sprechende paradoxerweise gerade wieder ausschliesst.

    Prinzipielle Toleranz ist freilich keine leichte Aufgabe; sie erfordert ununterbrochene Aufmerksamkeit und Selbstreflexion, ohne indes zu einer Haltung des Werterelativismus führen zu müssen. Sie ist ferner ein Akt gegen jede Form von Zensur. Umgekehrt führt konformistisches „virtue signalling“, das für den Absender der Mitteilung völlig risikofrei ist, zu gesellschaftlichem und intellektuellem Stillstand. Oder anders ausgedrückt, die (angeblichen) Progressiven von heute sind wahrscheinlich die Konservativen von morgen!

    Verteidigung aus Prinzip

    Um mit Friedrich A. Hayek zu sprechen, die Meinungsfreiheit ist eine Errungenschaft, die man nicht bloss aus Überlegungen der Zweckmässigkeit schützen soll, sondern man muss für ihren Bestand aus Prinzip einstehen. Um Missverständnisse zu vermeiden, dies bedeutet gerade nicht, dass wir nicht aus Anstand – ja vor allem weil tugendhaftes Handeln etwas Gutes und Schönes ist – die Gefühle anderer ernstnehmen sollten.

    Eine lateinische Redewendung mag hier dienlich sein:

    “Fortiter in re, suaviter in modo.”[3]

    Dort aber, wo wir Missstände zu erkennen glauben, müssen wir geradeaus sprechen. Wir müssen darum aus Prinzip für die Meinungsäusserungsfreiheit unserer politischen Kontrahenten eintreten, damit sie sich trotz ihrer politischen Verwirrtheit und ihrer teils schädlichen Gedanken öffentlich artikulieren können. Wie erwähnt, dies bedeutet indes nicht, dass die „prinzipielle Toleranz“ als das Feigenblatt intoleranter oder schädlicher Auffassungen dienen soll; ihre Maxime wirkt lediglich prozedural, indem sie anderen ermöglicht, deren Meinungen in die öffentliche Sphäre hineinzutragen.

    Dem Inhalt der Botschaft gegenüber müssen wir darum zumindest skeptisch, oft sogar selbst intolerant sein. Um Karl Poppers eindrückliches Diktum zu verwenden: die gänzlich unduldsamen Menschen verdienen auf inhaltlicher Ebene kein „Müh“ Toleranz, denn wenn wir mit ihnen auf rationaler Ebene nicht mehr „verhandeln“ können, riskieren wir, jede noch existierende Toleranz vollständig zu verlieren (sog. „Toleranz-Paradox“).[4]

    Schliesslich besitzt die Meinungsfreiheit auch einen inhärent positiven Auftrag an jeden Einzelnen, nämlich dass wir offen für Neues, für andere Meinungen, sein sollten. Bescheidenheit ist eine der grossen liberalen Tugenden. Anderen ohne intellektuelle Überheblichkeit zuzuhören, ist eine Eigenschaft, die sich historisch selten an einem Ort und zu irgendeinem Zeitpunkt als falsch erwiesen hat. Immerhin: es könnte ja ein Fünkchen Wahrheit in der Meinungsäusserung unserer Mitmenschen stecken.

    Und selbst wenn wir im Einzelfall nicht von unseren Mitmenschen lernen konnten, so wissen wir nun doch weit mehr über sie, ihre Ansichten und Ideen. Wir lernen dadurch, unsere Standpunkte effektiver und damit verständlicher zu kommunizieren – eine ungemein wichtige Eigenschaft in einem politischen „market place of ideas“.

    Fine

    Als zur Vernunft begabtes Wesen ist der Mensch fähig, edel, hilfreich und gut zu handeln, um mit Goethe zu sprechen – und wir sollten tatsächlich versuchen, dies so zu tun, wollen wir uns nicht einer gewissen Tugendethik und/oder Regeln des Anstandes verschliessen. Der Mensch ist aber vor allem eines, nämlich dazu verdammt, überkommene Strukturen und Werte zu hinterfragen. Jeglicher Versuch, diesen „Ur-Instinkt“ zu unterbinden, muss letzten Endes zur Unterdrückung eines Teilaspekts des Menschseins führen – und damit unweigerlich die Menschenwürde im oben verstandenen Sinne und damit unsere individuelle Identität tangieren.

     

     

    [1] Siehe William Ruger, Free Speech Is Central to Our Dignity as Humans, 3. Juni 2016, http://time.com/4355651/free-speech-human-dignity/

    [2] Siehe etwa Kevin Litman-Navarro, Wittgenstein on Whether Speech Is Violence, 30. August 2017, https://daily.jstor.org/wittgenstein-whether-speech-violence/

    [3] Übers.: Hart in der Sache, aber weich im Umgang [mit unseren Mitmenschen].

    [4] Siehe https://www.welt.de/print-welt/article154640/Karl-Popper-ueber-Toleranz.html